Behind the Scenes: International Law and Human Rights Violations of Migrant Workers in the United Arab Emirates
Beyza Yildirim
Undergraduate Student in Political Science at Trinity University in San Antonio, United States
Introduction
Over the past decade, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), particularly Dubai, has emerged as one of the Middle East’s most dynamic hubs. Lauded for its urban development, hospitality, and investment opportunities, the UAE continues its relentless pursuit of progress and economic growth.
Central to this progress is the country’s status as one of the world’s leading oil producers. Its expanding fossil fuel operations have driven an immense demand for labor, attracting millions of migrant workers, primarily from the Philippines, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. As of 2020, migrants constituted 87.9% of the UAE’s population and over 90% of its workforce. Many of these workers migrate in search of better livelihoods and opportunities to support their families through remittances.
Migrant recruitment in the UAE operates under the kafala (sponsorship) system, through which employers — individuals or companies — act as kafeel (sponsors) for their employees, covering expenses such as transportation and accommodation. Introduced in 1971, the system allows both nationals and expatriates to hire foreign workers. In many cases, employers rely on private recruitment agencies (PRAs) to facilitate the process. These agencies often charge exorbitant fees and misrepresent working conditions, luring workers into exploitative arrangements they might otherwise avoid. Compounding these challenges, the kafala system falls under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Interior rather than the Ministry of Labor, effectively excluding workers from unionizing or accessing labor protections.
The conditions fostered by this system have prompted several countries to temporarily ban labor migration to Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states, including the UAE. Scholars have described the kafala framework as a form of modern-day slavery, as it undermines human dignity and perpetuates structural violence through systemic exploitation.
To grasp the severity of migrant workers’ circumstances in the UAE, one must consider the everyday realities of abuse and deprivation. Employers frequently confiscate passports, restricting workers’ freedom of movement and ability to return home. There is no legally mandated minimum wage, leaving workers with meager earnings of roughly $150–$375 per month (23–45 cents per hour) for grueling 16–21-hour shifts. Wage withholding is common; in one instance, laborers went on strike after six months without pay. Most migrants live in “labor camps”, overcrowded and unsanitary compounds with inadequate sewage systems and unsafe drinking water, fostering disease and poor health. Moreover, construction workers routinely face dangerous conditions, including extreme heat exposure during peak hours.
The COVID-19 pandemic further exposed these structural injustices, highlighting workers’ limited access to healthcare and inadequate housing. While some reforms have been introduced in recent years, their impact remains minimal due to weak enforcement and regulatory loopholes. For instance, a 2005 Ministry of Labor decree banned construction work between 12:30–4:30 p.m. to protect workers from heat exposure, but corporate lobbying led to the reduction of this ban to 12:30–3:00 p.m. the following year — prioritizing profit over worker safety.
International Legal Framework
Several international human rights and labor instruments are directly relevant to the UAE’s treatment of migrant workers, yet the country’s engagement with them remains inconsistent. The UAE has not signed the ILO Domestic Workers Convention (No. 189), which guarantees protection from abuse, harassment, and violence and mandates “decent working conditions.” However, the UAE has ratified the ILO Abolition of Forced Labor Convention (No. 105), which prohibits forced labor “for purposes of economic development.” The confiscation of passports, a common practice, constitutes a breach of this obligation.
The UAE has not ratified the UN International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, which guarantees freedom of movement, protection from forced labor, and safeguards against violence and intimidation. Similarly, the UAE has not signed the UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), a core human rights instrument that recognizes the rights to fair working conditions, an adequate standard of living, and the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health.
The Case of Domestic Laborers
Within the GCC, domestic workers, predominantly women, represent one of the most vulnerable groups. Responsible for cleaning, cooking, and childcare, they are excluded from the protections of the UAE’s 1980 Labor Law and the 2007 Draft Labor Law. Because private households are not classified as formal workplaces, labor inspectors are barred from monitoring their conditions, leaving domestic workers particularly susceptible to physical, psychological, and sexual abuse. Their exploitation remains an under-researched yet critical dimension of migrant labor in the Gulf.
Conclusion
Migrant workers are the invisible foundation of the UAE’s glittering modernity — maintaining its skyscrapers, infrastructure, and global image. Yet behind the façade of prosperity lies a pervasive system of exploitation and neglect. Unless the UAE takes concrete action to align with international human rights standards, these violations will persist or even worsen as development accelerates.
Ratifying and implementing the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) would mark a vital step forward. As a cornerstone of international human rights law, it affirms the universality of dignity and equality, regardless of migratory status. Such a commitment would not only uphold the rights of those who built the UAE’s success but would also strengthen the country’s global reputation as a modern and just society.